Landmarks of Rome

Capitoline Hill

Campidoglio by night. (Photo by: nikonphotoslave)

The Capitoline Hill or Campidoglio, situated between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is the smallest of Rome's seven hills, but it was the religious and political center of the city since its foundation more than 2500 years ago. The hill contains few ancient ruins, but they are almost entirely covered up by Medieval palaces: Palazzo Nuovo, Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Senatorio, now the Capitoline Museums. A significant portion of the architecture in this area, as well as the Piazza del Campidoglio was designed by Michelangelo in the 16th century.

Even before there was Rome built, the Capitoline hill was an important location. It's the site where at some point in the hill's history, a human skull (caput in Latin) was found buried. That's way the hill was named the Capitoline, or Capitol Hill in English (and Campidoglio in Italian).
Although Romulus, the founder of Rome, decided for the Palatine as the site of the future city, the Capitoline was long the defensive center of Rome. This is due to its characteristics: it is the highest and rockiest hill in Rome, bordered from all sides by sharp cliffs. The western side of the hill is known as the Tarpeian Rock, served at one point as the place from which criminals were thrown as a means of capital punishment. The reason for being a defensive stronghold lies in the fact that the Capitoline could be accessed only by means of a narrow path leading up the southern side of the hill. This is why even at the height of Rome's power, the Capitoline was considered the citadel of the city. It was a place where Romans could escape even in case the city's walls were breached by an invading army. For example, when the Celtic Gauls raided Rome in 390 BC, the Capitoline Hill was the one part of the city which evaded capture by the barbarians.

In addition to being the most defensive point in Rome, the Capitoline was the religious center for the city, and in extension, of the entire Empire. On Capitoline hill the Temple of Jupiter (Jove), the Best and Greatest (or TEMPLUM IOVUS OPTIMUS MAXIMUS, in Latin) was erected during the reign of Rome's last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. This temple of Jove, the high king of the gods, was among the most magnificent pagan temple built by the Empire. The design of the temple resembled the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, both in size and shape, and a massive statue of Jove inside the temple was very similar to those of Athena which then stood in the Parthenon. The appearance of the statue of Jove was remarkable: the statue was built of expensive materials, for example ivory and gold; and is was dressed in richly garments. The temple got destroyed several times by invading armies, for sure in AD 69 by Romans themselves in a civil war. After the fall of the Roman Empire and the invasion of barbars, the temple was destroyed and disappeared almost completely. Nowadays, only pieces of the foundations remain, but they are covered by the modern construction of the Capitoline buildings, namely the Church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. There is only one vague remembrance: a street running up the southern side of the hill is named "Via Tempio Giove." Besides the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, several important temples were built at the Capitoline Hill by the Romans: the Temple of Juno Moneta and the Temple of Virtus (also known as the Capitoline Triad). Also on the hill was the Tabularium, built in 79 BC and used as the empire's main archive. The Capitoline hill, and the temple of Jupiter in particular were the symbols of Rome as Caput Mundi, capital of the world.

During the Middle Ages the Capitol remained the political center of Rome. Afterwards, Monte Caprino (Goat Hill), as the hill was called, fallen into ruin. But in Renaissance, Pope Paul III (1468-1549) decided to restore its grandeur for the visit of Charles V (1500-58), the Holy Roman Emperor. Michelangelo Buonarotti was given the task of renovating the face of Rome, by creating the staircase ramp, the buildings and facades on three sides of the Capitoline Hill, the slightly convex pavement and its decoration, and the pedestal for the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. With his design, he thus created a distinctive mark which can be seen everywhere in modern Rome. He was responsible for designing the Piazza del Campidoglio and Coronata, the broad steps leading up to the square. Up the northern slope of the hill he created a broad, shallow staircase, something between a stairway and a ramp. When climbing up the steps, you reach the top of the hill, which consists of a piazza fronted by three palaces. Palazzo Nuovo and the Palazzo Dei Conservatori, located on the left and the right are part of the Musei Capitolini, and house a vast collection of antiquities, and are one of the oldest public collections of art in the world. Directly opposite the stairs is the Palazzo Senatorio, which houses government offices, but nowadays is open to the public. In the center of the square is an equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Well, it used to be, because nowadays there is only a casting of the original statue. The original statue is placed inside the museum, where it was moved in the 1970s for restoration. It is now behind glass, due to its great value: it is the only statue preserved from the pagan Rome.

Piazza del Campidoglio

Climbing up  the Cordonata. (Photo by: rucativava)

In ancient times, the Capitoline Hill's main features were the Temple of the Capitoline Triad and the Tabularium. Afterwards, the hill's main landmark was a tall tufa structure that forms the foundation of today's city hall, the Palazzo Senatorio. But most of the buildings on the Capitoline Hill that are nowadays present date from the Renaissance. The long, sloping steps and a perfectly proportioned square at the top, Piazza del Campidoglio, were designed by Michelangelo Bounarotti. The design of this piazza really sums up all the majesty of High Renaissance Rome. The square is centered by the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius and on three sides bounded by three palaces: by the Senatorium or Palazzo Senatorio (Town Council), the statuary-filled Palazzo dei Conservatori (Curators), and the Capitoline Museum or Palazzo Nuovo.

The existing design of the Piazza del Campidoglio and its surroundings  was created by Michelangelo in 1536–1546. His first designs date from 1536. But, what is so special about Michelangelo's design? Michelangelo came up with an original design for the entire square, including an intriguing ground pattern. He reversed the facing of the entire square: the classical orientation of the Capitoline was in the opposite way, facing the Roman Forum. This reversal marked a symbolic gesture turning Rome’s civic center to face away from the Roman Forum and instead in the direction of Papal Rome and the Christian church in the form of St. Peter’s Basilica. He redesigned the Palazzo Senatorio, seat of the Roman senate, made designs of a new façade for the Palazzo dei Conservatori and designed a completely new building, the Palazzo Nuovo. He introduced the so-called "cult of the axis", a new urbanistic way of planning which was dominant in Italian architecture for centuries after his death. He also planned a monumental staircase, called the Cordonata, leading from the bottom of the hill to the new square.

Not only this, but the laying of the plan was itself difficult due to the poor configuration of terrain. When he designed the new facades centering them at the rear, he got a trapezoid space, and the facades did not face each other squarely. The whole site also sloped, which gave an even more sense of disharmony. But, Michelangelo's solution was radical.  Since no "perfect" forms would work in this square, he designed an apparent oval in the paving, which is actually egg-shaped, narrower at one end than at the other. The design set into the paving is perfectly level with its center springs slightly, achieving a sence that a giant egg is positioned in the center of the square. An interlaced twelve-pointed star in the middle ( a reference to the constellations) further emphasizes the name of this site: Caput mundi, the "head of the world." The shallow staircase, called the Cordonata, was envisioned as gently raising ramp, adorned with granite statues of Egyptian lions at the foot and two large classical statues of Castor and Pollux at the top.

The casting of a bronze statue of Marco Aurelius, situated at the center of Piazza del Campidoglio. (Photo by: Manjeet Bawa)

Although the design was finished, the construction of the entire Piazza really ended in 1940. The
construction started in 1546 but only the staircase at the entrance of the Palazzo Senatorio was completed when Michelangelo died in 1564. The project was only finished in the 17th century, mostly in accordance with Michelangelo's plans. The paving of the square was finished by Benito Mussolini, who ordered the paving completed to Michelangelo's design in 1940.

Palazzo Nuovo

In order to close off the piazza symmetrically and cover up the tower of the Church Santa Maria in Aracoeli, the Palazzo Nuovo, or "New Palace" was constructed. When arriving from the Cordonata, the building is situated to the left. The building was designed by Michelangelo and its construction began in 1603, but it was finished by the brothers Carlo and Girolamo Rainaldi in 1654. Its facade is the exact duplicate of of Palazzo dei Conservatori's. The later architects copied the original Michelangelo's blueprint when he redesigned the Palazzo dei Conservatori a century earlier. In 1734, pope Clemens XII opened the building to the public, creating the world's first public museum.

Palazzo Nuovo, nowadays one of the Capitoline Museums, contains very valuable pieces of classical sculpture. The stars of this museum are definitely: Dying Galatian, a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture dating from the 3rd century BC; Discobolus, a sculpture by an 18th century artist who used the twisted torso from a Greek statue of a discus thrower; Alexander Severus as Hunter, a 3rd century AD marble statue, portraying the emperor Alexander Severus as a mythical hero Perseus, holding up the head of Medusa the Gorgon after he had killed her; Mosaic of the Doves, a 1st century AD naturalistic mosaic, which served as a floor decoration of the Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli; Hall of the Philosophers, a hall in the museum containing Roman copies of portrait busts of Greek politicians, scientists and poets, once a part of homes of wealthy Romans.

Palazzo Senatorio

The Capitoline Wolf, one of several famous artefacts placed inside the Capitoline Museums. (Photo by: Allie Caufield)

The central building on the Piazza del Campidoglio is the Palazzo Senatorio ("Senatorial Palace"). The name of the palace originates from its function: it was a seat of the Senate until 1870, when it became the palazzo senatorio seat of the City of Rome. It was originally built as a fortress in the 11th century on top of the ancient Tabularium (which housed the archives of ancient Rome). Later on the palace was rebuilt in the 13th and 14th century, by using the peprino marble blocks from the Tabularium, placing them in the left side of the palace and a corner of the bell tower. The current design is a slightly adapted version of the 16th century design by Michelangelo. He was responsible for the new facade, its double ramp of stairs and the fountain situated in front of the staircase, featuring the river gods of the Tiber and the Nile as well as Dea Roma (Minerva). The palace's bell tower was designed by Martino Longhi the Elder and built between 1578 and 1582. The current facade was finished by Michelangelo's successors Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi.

Palazzo dei Conservatori

Palazzo Senatorio at Piazza del Campidoglio. (Photo by: rucativava)

The building opposite the Palazzo Nuovo is the Palazzo dei Conservatori ("Palace of the Conservators"). It was originally called the Palazzo Caffarelli, because it was built in the Middle Ages for the local magistrate. The building was erected on top of a sixth century BC temple dedicated to Jupiter "Maximus Capitolinus". The palace later on served as the seat of the city government during the Middle Ages. Its facade was renovated by Michelangelo in the 1530s, as a part of the renovation and construction of the Palazzo del Campidoglio and again later numerous times. Nowadays, it is the part of the Capitoline Museums, with a collection mainly consisting of sculpture and paintings.

The palace is open for public. Its frescoed halls are occasionally the site of political meetings. The ground floor retained its political, administrative function: it houses the municipal registry office. A large portion of the palace, as the other two, is dedicated to art, especially sculpture. There are some very valuable pieces, including the fragments of a huge sculpture of Constantine; works by famous artists like Veronese, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Van Dyke and Titian. The stars of the museum are Caravaggio's St John the Baptist, a sensual portrait of a young saint; Bernini's Medusa, a bust of the mythological Medusa the Gorgon; Pietro da Cortona's The Rape of the Sabine Women, portraying the mass abduction of Sabine women by the Romans dating from 1625; and a charming bronze sculpture named Spinario dating from the 1st century BC, portraying a boy trying to remove a thorn from his foot.

Church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli

Palazzo dei Conservatori by night. (Photo by: nikotinphotoslave)

The name Santa Maria in Aracoeli or St Mary of the Altar of Heaven derives from the medieval legend. The legend presented in the mid-12th-century guide to Rome, Mirabilia Urbis Romae, stated that the church was built over an Augustan Ara primogeniti Dei, in the place where the Tiburtine Sibyl prophesied to Augustus the coming of the Christ. That's why the figures of Augustus and of the Tiburtine sibyl are painted on both sides of the arch above the high altar. A later legend added an apparition of the Virgin Mary.

Santa Maria in Aracoeli ("St Mary of the Altar of Heaven") is a titular basilica church in Rome, located on the Capitoline hill, adjacent to Piazza del Campidoglio. The church is the designated Church of the Italian Senate and the Roman people (Senatus Populusque Romanus). Originally the church's name was Santa Maria in Capitolo, because of its position on the Capitoline Hill (Campidoglio) of Ancient Rome. In the 14th century it was renamed into Santa Maria in Aracoeli.

Some researchers claim that the church was built over the temple of Juno Moneta, and others that the church was built on the site of an ancient auguraculum, which served as the seat of augurs. What is certain is that the church was built on top of a Byzantine abbey mentioned in 574. It was later taken over by the papacy until the 9th century when it was handed over to religious orders: first the Benedictines, than in the 13th century to the Franciscans. Also during the 13th century, the church was renovated in Romanesque-Gothic style. In the Middle Ages, the church became the center of Rome's religious life. This is especially seen during the 14th century, when  Cola di Rienzo inaugurated the monumental stairway of 124 steps in front of the church. The steps were designed by Simone Andreozzi in 1348, on the occasion of the Black Death. During the 16th century, the church was the site of many celebrations: Marcantonio Colonna's victory in the Battle of Lepanto over the Turkish fleet was commemorated by painting of the church's ceiling as a means of thanks to the Virgin Mary for the victory in the battle. An unexpected turnover marked the end of the 18th century: in 1797 the basilica was deconsecrated and turned into a stable!

(Photo by: Dave Hamster)

The main feature of this Church of the Roman People and Senate are its unfinished facade (mosaics and frescoes which decorated the main facade got lost through the time); the Gothic window, which remains as the only Gothic ornament and different Roman columns (because they were taken from various other Roman monuments). But, its true beauty is revealed in the vast majority of very valuable art pieces, hidden in its interior. Some of the valuable artefacts the church possess include: Pinturicchio's 15th-century frescoes depicting the life of Saint Bernardino of Siena (located in the Cappella Buffalini, one of the church's three chapels); Transfiguration painted on wood by Girolamo Siciolante da Sermoneta; frescoes by Pietro Cavallini, Benozzo Gozzoli and Giulio Romano. There are also tombs of Famous romans: the tomb of Cecchino Bracci designed by Michelangelo and the tombstone of Giovanni Ceivelli made by Donatello, as well as the tombs of Pope Honorius IV and Queen Catherine of Bosnia. The church also contains a sculpture very important to Romans: the wooden statue of the infant Jesus (Santo Bambino) which is carved from an olive wood from the Gethsemane garden. The statue, dating from the 15th century, is believed to possess healing powers, and was very important to Romans through centuries. The statue is taken out every Christmas, when it is placed into the Nativity crib, symbolizing the newly born Christ. The church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli houses a vast number of relics: the relics of Saint Helena, mother of Constantine the Great are the most interesting ones.

The interior of church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. (Photo by: Gaspa)