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| Perhaps the most important moment for the history of world science was when the discoveries of Eastern science were introduced to the West, and the other way around. This is an image of Jesuit missionaries in China |
In the area of science and technology China has a long and rich tradition - a multitude of inventions which have made human life much easier. Ever since ancient times, Chinese philosophers have made advances in mathematics, astronomy, technology and science, quite independently of Western scientists working in the same fields. One field which they excelled in was definitely medicine, with acupuncture and various forms of herbal medicine being most prominent. Architecture was another field where Chinese technology showed its full splendor - the Great Wall of China, built between 220 and 200 BC, is considered by many the crowning achievement of world architecture.
China is the source of four famous inventions, also known as the Four Great Inventions of Ancient China: the compass, gunpowder, printing and paper. The ancient Chinese also invented various time-keeping devices, such as shadow clocks, which preceded the sundial, and which were of great help in mathematics and astronomy. The abacus, a famous counting tool, was invented in China between 1000 BC and 500 BC. In astronomy, ancient Chinese scientists made precocious discoveries - the oldest book on astronomy is the Book of Silk, compiled around 400 BCE, which lists 29 comets (in the text they are called broom stars) appearing over a period of 300 years. When Jesuit missionaries came to China in 16th and 17th centuries, they brought with them Western science and astronomy, and carried the knowledge of Chinese science back to Europe. This was a turning point in the history of science, for both East and West. In the twentieth century, especially after the establishment of People's Republic in 1949, the attitude toward science changed significantly. Science was now re-organized in accordance with principles of the Soviet state. It became one of the Four Modernizations, a reform movement initiated in 1975 by Deng Xiaoping. Throughout the 1980s, Chinese science made major breakthroughs in the fields of nuclear weapons and satellite launching and their recovery. There were also important innovations in agriculture, with a development of a high-yield hybrid rice. Science now also aimed to heal society's ailments, to reduce poverty and unemployment, and generally, to make life for the Chinese more easy and comfortable. The sudden growth of Chinese science in late twentieth century is mostly attributed to changes in Government policy. The Government has dramatically increased funding of scientific projects and research, which has led to great benefits for agriculture, medicine, as well as genetics and climate change research.
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| One of the earliest inventions of Chinese technology is the propeller |
China's history of science and technology is very long and exemplary in every respect. It is full of significant, even astounding contributions to science and technology. It has become almost a commonplace to notice that some western tool or technological equipment was long ago invented and used in China. Our ignorance of the accomplishments of that ancient civilization is always dawning on us and giving reason to be humbled by its many discoveries. Ancient Chinese philosophers have, quite independently of Greek or any other philosophers or scientists, made astonishing advances in science, technology, astronomy and mathematics. The first observations of comets ever recorded, but also of solar eclipses and supernovae, were made in China. The sciences of medicine, acupuncture, and herbal medicine, were long developed before the Western medicine made any progress by itself.
Based on the Taoist philosophy, Traditional Chinese medicine developed alongside acupuncture and herbal medicine. Acupuncture is an ancient practice, traced back to the 1st millennium BC. Chinese herbology, or the art of combining medicinal herbs, is one of the most important methods of using traditional Chinese medicine. A very fruitful field for technological advances was architecture. One of the greatest achievements of this, or any other civilization, in this field was the building of the Great Wall of China, during the reign of the first Emperor of unified China Qin Shi Huang, from 220 to 200 BC.
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| One of the most familiar inventions in arithmetic is the abacus, now almost a 3,000 years old instrument |
Several inventions were made in the sphere of time-keeping - shadow clocks, which preceded the sundial, were invented in China around 4,000 years ago. The abacus, or counting frame, a tool for calculating used by all Asians in arithmetic, was invented in China somewhere between 1000 BC and 500 BC. These tools were most useful in sciences such as astronomy. Observations could be systematically recorded, measures taken and precise predictions made, which would have been impossible without them. The first eclipse of the sun was thus documented in 2137 BC. The first record of a group of planets was made in 500 BC. One of the first, and most significant works on astronomy, was the Book of Silk, written by Chinese astronomers around 400 BC, and discovered in the Mawangdui tomb in 1973. The book gives a list of 29 comets which appeared over a span of 300 years, and remains the first definitive atlas of comets.
Similarly, the first water-powered rotating armillary sphere, which is a model of the celestial sphere, was invented by the Eastern Han Dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD). This made an extensive catalogue of 2500 stars and more than 100 constellations. Zhang Heng also invented the first seismological detector, called the "Houfeng Didong Yi", or the "Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth." Its function is to measure and record the motions of the ground, seismic waves, earthquakes, and later it could measure trembling caused by nuclear explosions and suchlike.
Another great scholar and inventor from China's early period was Ma Jun (200-265 AD). Known for improving the silk loom (a machine for weaving thread or yarn into textile) he also designed mechanical chain pumps (a type of water pump where a series of circular discs are placed on long chain) used to irrigate gardens. Moreover, he constructed probably the first mechanical puppet theater for Emperor Ming of Wei, operated by a big hidden waterwheel. His greatest invention, however, was definitely the South Pointing Chariot. This is now regarded as the most complex mechanism of the ancient Chinese civilization, and is probably the most elaborate type of compass ever made.
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| A modern type of Kongming lantern, or hot air balloon, invented by Zhuge Liang |
Chinese scientists were the first to experiment with aviation, and inventing what are the first flying machines, such as the kite and the Kongming lantern (or the first hot air balloon, invented by the military strategist Zhuge Liang). Another well-known tool are the sliding calipers, a device used for measuring the distance between two symmetrically opposing sides, which were invented in China around 2,000 years ago.
Perhaps the most famous contributions to world science, as well as its national treasure, are the Four Great Inventions of ancient China. They are: paper, printing, gunpowder and the compass. These discoveries had an incalculable effect not only on the development of the Chinese civilization, but also on human civilization as a whole. Their impact was famously observed by the famous philosopher Francis Bacon, who wrote the following thoughts on the subject in his Novum Organum:
"Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries." Novum Organum, Liber I
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| These are a type of rifles, or matchlocks, used in the Ming Dynasty era (1368-1644 AD) |
Printing and paper were invented and developed first. Printing was first recorded in China in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). However, the earliest existing examples of printed cloths are dated before 220 AD. Gunpowder came next, with the Jin Dynasty alchemist Ge Hong, who recorded the chemical reactions that take place when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal are heated together. Later, in the 14th century, gunpowder was given its best use in the military treatise Huo Long Jing, written by Jiao Yu. This treatise specified the functions of such weapons as fire arrows, rockets, fire lances and firearms, land mines and naval mines, bombards and cannons, beside giving all the compositions of gunpowder, such as 'poisonous gunpowder', 'magic gunpowder' and 'blinding and burning gunpowder.'
During the time of what is known in the West as Early Middle ages, or in China the Tang Dynasty period (618-906 AD) there was much innovation that occurred in the East. Included in the inventions of early China are matches, the piston pump, dry docks (for floating of boats), the iron plough, the horse collar, the wheelbarrow, the parachute, the suspension bridge, natural gas used as fuel, the pound lock (used regularly today on canals and rivers), the propeller, the raised-relief map and the sluice gate. The printing of books was developed for the first time in China and Japan in the 7th century. The earliest known printed document is the Diamond Sutra, which was discovered in the 20th century, sealed in a cave. For a while, books were printed using the movable type, but this was not very popular, due to the great number of characters needed.
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| This is a picture of a Byzantine ship using the weapon known as 'Greek Fire' |
A major improvement in the area of weapons was made to the old Byzantine weapon called Greek Fire. It was a kind of an early flame-thrower, which helped the Byzantines win many difficult battles at sea. The effectiveness of this weapon is well recorded in the account of a battle on the Yangtze river, near Nanjing, in 975 AD. The subsequent period of the Middle Ages, the Song Dynasty period, saw another host of great innovations in science and technology. Perhaps the most famous scientist of this period is the statesman Shen Kuo, who wrote the famous work Dream Pool Essays (1088 AD). In this book, Shen Kuo made elaborate theories on climate change, land formation, or geomorphology, discovered the concept of 'true north' and the navigational magnetic compass, as well as a use for drydocks, or narrow basins, to repair boats.
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| A depiction of a method of making instruments for astronomical observation during the Qing Dynasty |
Another significant inventor from this period was the statesman Su Song. His best known work is the Astronomical Clock Tower of Kaifeng, built in 1088 AD. Some of the mechanisms in this construction were not used in clockworks in Europe until two centuries later. The first documented observations of a supernova, or a star explosion, took place during the Han Dynasty. The name of the first supernova is SN 185, which appeared in the year 185 and was recorded in the Book of Later Han. Another two supernova sightings were made by Chinese astronomers during the Song Dynasty: the SN 1054, and the SN 1006, the latter being the brightest supernova ever recorded.
These mostly relate to the observations made by Shen Kuo, who made specific claims related to climate change and geomorphology in his Dream Pool Essays, written in 1088. His belief was that land took different shapes during longer periods of time. He ascribed this to continuous erosion, uplift and deposition of silt. One of his most astute observations dealt with a horizontal strata of fossils which he found in a cliffside at Taihang, which he took as evidence that the spot was the location of an old seashore which had traveled several hundreds of miles east during a huge time-span. He also observed that climates have a tendency to shift geographically over longer periods of time.
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| China's territory is full of newly discovered archaeological sites, relics from different dynasties, tombs, graves, and almost 400,000 known cultural relics, above- and underground |
The study of archaeology had slow beginnings in the history of Chinese science. Interest in archaeology first developed among the wealthy classes, the educated gentry, who wanted to bring back the use of ancient vessels and artifacts as part of various ceremonies. This happened mostly during the Song Dynasty period (960-1279). The first systematic examination came from Shen Kuo, who argued for an interdisciplinary approach to the study of archaeology. After making what were strictly archaeological findings, he would incorporate them into his studies of other fields, such as astronomy, metallurgy, optics, geometry and ancient music measures. He also made a powerful critique of the belief that ancient vessels were made by 'sages', adding to popular reverence toward these objects, and not by common people. It was characteristic that a man of science should dispel such myths and give an objective viewpoint.
Another contemporary of Shen Kuo, Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072) made pioneering work in the area of archaeology and epigraphy when he made an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze. Various other scientist made use of archaeological findings as evidence against certain claims made in historical writings, to which they made reservations. So for example, Hong Mai (1123-1202) made use of old vessels from the Han Dynasty period to prove false certain erroneous portrayals of Han vessels in an archaeological catalogue called Bogutu, which was written in the first half of the 12th century.
Traditional Chinese medicine made significant advances in the Middle Ages. Different scholars made compilations of various uses for herbs, minerals and similar. Su Song (1020-1101) made a systematic categorization of different herbs and minerals, and divided them according to their medicinal use. The first scholarly compilation in the area of pharmacology came in 657, when Emperor Gaozong (649-683) made a commission for a materia medica (a body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic characteristics of substances which are used in healing). This work, the first of its kind, documented 833 medicinal substances that were taken from minerals, plants, stones, metals, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits and crops.
One of the most significant advancements which distinguished warfare during the Medieval period and that practiced in modern times was the employment of gunpowder weapons. The first image of such a weapon comes from the 10th century, a depiction of a fire lance, precursor of the modern gun. The first written formulas for gunpowder are given in Wujing Zongyao, a military work written in 1044, which also gave a description of the oldest Chinese Greek Fire flamethrower. Other weapons based on gunpowder were developed by the 13th century. Among them are the land mine, the hand cannon, an iron-cased bomb shell and a primitive type of rocket. Already by early 14th century, the heavy cannon and exploding cannonballs were developed, the naval mine and many other similar instruments of warfare.
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| The famous clock tower of Kaifeng, designed by Su Song |
Su Song also made significant contributions to horology, or the art of measuring time. This particularly relates to his work on the astronomical clock tower in Kaifeng. In his book Xinyi Xiangfayao, (lit. translation 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') he documented all the complex mechanical details of the famous clock tower. Yi Xing (683-727), another famous astronomer, mathematician, mechanical engineer, made further developments in this area, with his astronomical celestial globe, which was the first which had a clockwork escapement mechanism, and was the first in a tradition of Chinese astronomical clocks.
The first description of a magnetic needle compass is given in a work by Shen Kuo in 1088. It also contains the first recorded experiments with camera obscura, with the invention of movable type printing, and with the forging of cast iron under a cold blast. One of his most important discoveries was of the concept of true north, which he made when he was using a sighting tube and making corrections to the position of the polestar, as well as discovering a magnetic declination toward the North Magnetic Pole.
The contributions to Chinese metallurgy were also significant during the Middle Ages. The iron industry in particular experienced a boom in production, especially in the 11th century, causing huge deforestation, which created an imbalance in the natural environment, due to extended use of charcoal in the process of smelting. Different specific inventions in the field were introduced since the 1st century, with hydraulic-powered bellows (a device for blowing air) used for heating a blast furnace (a metallurgical furnace used for smelting in the production of metals, especially iron) being written about during that early time. They were discovered by Du Shi, a mechanical engineer (died 38 AD) who was the first to apply hydraulic power to operate bellows in metallurgy.
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| This is a round lacquerware box, on which are carved scenes of children playing. It was made during the Qing Dynasty |
One primary source of inspiration when it came to production of metals was the Daoist philosophy. Drawing inspiration from its writings which dealt with the search for an elixir of life and a desire to create gold from different elements, Daoist priests made advances in the science of alchemy. The experiments they conducted are often ridiculed by today's scientific standards, and are usually described as pseudo-science, but they did make important discoveries of new metals, their alloys, types of porcelain and dyes. One Arab work from the 9th century, the Kitab al-Khawass al Kabir, gives a list of different products that were native to China, such as Chinese lacquer which protected items of leather, waterproof and other cream and varnishes for dispelling dust from weapons or clothes, recipes for Chinese and Indian ink, and a type of cream used used for polishing mirrors.
Ancient Chinese science developed largely with no specific solid scientific theory, which made it rather difficult to determine its progress. One of the most effective critiques of these drawbacks was given by the mathematician Yang Hui (1238-1298), who objected to scientific methods without theoretical foundations.
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| The meeting of Matteo Ricci, on the left, and Xu Gongqi, is usually cited as representative of the exchange, or meeting, of the sciences of East and West |
However, certain scientific hypotheses followed recognizable scientific principles, which are almost in accordance with the way modern science develops. So, for example, the scientist Sun Sikong (1015-1076) gave a hypothesis that rainbows are the result of contact between sunlight and moisture in the air. This hypothesis was extended by Shen Kuo (1031-1095) who gave a more elaborate description of atmospheric refraction (a deviation of light from a straight line when it passes through the atmosphere because of variation in density of air.) Shen also expanded upon beliefs held by earlier scholars such as Jing Fang (78-37 BCE) and Zhang Heng (78-139 CE) who made propositions on the lunar and solar eclipse, saying that one occurred when the earth blocks the sunlight which travels toward the moon, and the other when the moon blocks sunlight traveling toward the earth. One scientific position, shared with western scholars, concerned the spherical shape of earth. This did not occur to Chinese scientists until the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and the Chinese astronomer Xu Guangqi (1562-1633) revealed the current discoveries in this area.
One crucial factor in the history of Chinese science was the introduction of Western science and astronomy in 16th and 17th centuries by Jesuit missionaries. They were highly revered among the gentry and aristocracy, especially "for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography." They came at a time when scientific knowledge was very low in China, and the contributions they made remains inestimable. The effort that Jesuits put in translating the works of Chinese philosophers were nothing short of miraculous. Matteo Ricci is a standout example, and these works had a great influence on European thinkers and scholars. One historian said following: "The Jesuits made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture."
China's science and technology have grown at an incredible rate in the last couple of decades. The government has recognized the importance that these sectors have on the socio-economic development of the country, and their role in connecting China to the global economy. Investments in these areas have proliferated, scientific structures and research facilities have been drastically improved, and more funding was provided for research. The overall effects of these measures have been incalculable, causing the advance of such fields as agriculture, medicine, space science, genetics and global or climate change.
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| The Library of the Chinese Academy of Science |
The scientific research system of China is based on cooperation, especially between the major scientific institutions, which number over 160 different national scientific and academic organizations connected with the China Association for Science and Technology. The most important and influential among these are the Chinese Academy of Sciences, different schools of higher learning, local scientific research institutes, national defense departments and various industrial departments. The China Association for Science and Technology, or CAS, is the country's greatest academic institute and research center in natural sciences. It is based in Beijing, and its academic divisions include mathematics and physics, technological sciences, chemistry, geography and biology. The Association has more than 100 research institutes in different parts of the country. One of its more recent plans is to provide funding for more than 80 national research institutes which specialize in scientific and technological innovation, by the year 2010. The number of China's CAS academics is also very impressive, and testifies to the country's strength and influence in the world scientific community. The official title they are receive is the Academician of Science, and it is the highest honor the government grants to persons in science and technology. There are around 700 Academicians in China at the present moment, with an average age of 58, which is actually the youngest average in the world. The most distinguished institute in engineering science and technology is the Chinese Academy of Engineering (established in 1994) which conducts strategic studies related to engineering which are important to the state, provides advice in making of decisions related to its field, and generally promotes the development of engineering science and technology. Another very important scientific institution is the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC). Its role is to support basic research, which is conducted to improve understanding of fundamental principles of a particular field, and sometimes also applied research, which relates to using some theory proposed by the scientific community in order to accomplish some specific purpose. The extent of its support of research projects in the last ten or twelve years is seen in the fact that more than 60,000 scientists received some form of help from this institution, and thousands of different projects were funded through it.
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| Bust of Deng Jiaxian, nuclear bomb scientist, sometimes called 'Chinese Oppenheimer' |
Over the past 100 years or so, science in China has made major steps in ensuring the country's overall development. China's scientific and technical achievements have been very impressive in different fields. This is particularly significant considering its overall economic status - for such a low-income, still developing country, certain scientific accomplishments are more than impressive. For example, China has managed to develop nuclear weapons on its own when other countries needed help from outside, to launch and recover satellites and supercomputers (computers that, when they are introduced, are considered to have the fastest capacity for processing information). Despite these facts, the development of science in China has been very uneven. In some fields there were significant achievements, while in others there were virtually none. This can partly be attributed to the changing policy of the state when it came to science. Also, the rural population did not quite understand the contributions science could make, and how this could help improve their life. This is again largely because the opportunities for secondary and higher education in China are relatively scarce, which makes things all the more difficult. One inconsistent government policy has been to focus its resources in a limited number of fields and institutions, and neglect others. Nonetheless, science and technology have been a long time concern of the leaders of the PRC. Some of them were even eminent scientists in their fields. One of the crucial moments in raising the public awareness of science was when in 1976 Premier Zhou Enlai established "Science and Technology" as one of the Four Modernizations (a massive plan for reform in the fields of agriculture, industry, technology and defense).
The inscription on the plaque beneath the bust reads: "Deng Jiaxian, a native of Huaiyu County, Anhui Province, was an outstanding Chinese physicist and nuclear scientist who made seminal contributions to neutron physics, the physics of explosions, ion physics, fluid dynamics, and statistical physics. Deng served as director and researcher of the Ninth Institute of the Nuclear Industry, as a Vice Chairman of the Nuclear Industry Ministry and of COSTIND, a member of the academic department of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and a member of the Twelfth Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Deng was one of the founders of nuclear weapons research in China and was the principal organizer and leader of research and development work on nuclear weapons technology. Deng devoted decades, working in anonymity, for the success of the Chinese atomic bomb and hydrogen bomb tests and for the development of the nuclear weapons organizations. Deng Jiaxian made great and everlasting contributions to smashing the nuclear monopoly of the superpowers, to China's national defence and to world peace. Deng was awarded a national natural sciences prize and four prizes for contributions to the advancement of Chinese science. Deng was also recognized as an outstanding young or middle aged worker and as an outstanding expert and as a national model worker."
A key influence was exerted by the Communist Party of China. Some say that the distortions in economy and society the Party created had a deleterious effect on the progress of science. Prior to the 1990s, the Chinese Academy of Sciences was established on the Soviet model, and was virtually isolated from industry. Later, scientists were encouraged to commercialize their products and enter into some form of business activity that would make their scientific output available to the community. There are still ongoing debates within the Chinese scientific community as to what institutional arrangements are best suited to foster the growth of Chinese science. One measure was to reduce the number of scientific institutes from one hundred and twenty in 1998 to ninety-eight in 2005. The universities adopted similar measures. Undergraduate and graduate enrollments became twice higher from the period of 1995 to 2005. The scientific work of the university has improved drastically during the past decade, and some Chinese scientists believe it will reach the standards of the CAS very soon. Investment in science has increased significantly in the last ten years. The numbers are quite impressive - in 2003 the total investment by Chinese businesses in technological innovation was 96 billion RMB (around $10 billion), which is about 62% of the total investment of the PRC. In 2003, about 159 billion RMB were spent by scientific businesses on science and technology expenses. A very important condition for continuing growth of science is well developed communication and cooperation between the mentioned enterprises and institutions of higher learning. The best example is the fact that between 1999 and 2003 the work fees institutions of higher education received from private enterprises were raised from 5.3 billion RMB to 11.2 billion RMB.
Perhaps a crucial point in the relations of the Chinese government and the scientific community occurred on May 6, 1995, when the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council issued the impressively sounding "Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on the Acceleration of Progress in Science and Technology." It was maybe the first official decision which recognized the importance of science and technology in social and economic development. Practical measures included giving encouragement to scientific academies and institutes of higher learning to establish high tech companies, as well as to set the objective of reaching the R&D spending equivalent to 1.5% of the GDP by the year 2000. As a consequence of this new attitude, science and technology became more connected with social issues, such as population control, environmental problems, developing technologies to reduce pollution, public health, and so on. The Decision also urged science to move out of the institutes into private enterprises. This would meet the needs of the socialist market economy. Also, research institutes should enter into cooperation with foreign companies, and they should be allowed more freedom in deciding how to direct their research, but also to be more responsible for the profits and losses they make. Market needs should be considered when research programs are established, and capital, information and personnel should become more efficient, meaning faster and smoother.
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| A Science center in the shape of a golf ball, now in Vancouver, used to be the Chinese pavillion at Expo 86 |
The overall quality of Chinese science has been raised during the past ten years owing to a solid system of peer review by the National Science Foundation of China. In 1999 it funded 16% of the 20,000 grant applications which it receives each year, and its budget is seeing a 20% annual increase. It has outdone the Ministry of Science and Technology in awarding more research grants on a competitive basis. If the NNSFC awards money to a research project, this often proves to be an incentive to further funding by the local government. The maximum amount of funding provided by the central and local government to basic and applied research has been set to reach 1.5 % of the GDP by 2000. The National Science Foundation of China has created three types of programs that form the basis of its research investments. These are: the young scientist program, (which also gives opportunity for short-term training abroad), the program for building science in the developing regions of China, and the new high-tech concepts program. Together they take up about 80% of the NNSFC budget. The process of review of scientific candidates is central in ensuring the attainment of highest quality in science. Chinese scientists are obligated to serve for a period of two to four years on a review panel for their field. From the moment an application for a grant is received to the moment of decision an estimated six months elapses, that is, for three year grants. Long-term funding usually requires longer decision-making time. There is, however, occasion for criticism within the present scientific community. In 2005 a book was released entitled Critique of the Academic Evaluation System, by Professor Liu Ming from the Zhejiang University. He argued that the progress of science was impeded by interference from government officials and bureaucrats, decreasing the effectiveness of the peer review system. He basically claimed that scientists lost too much valuable time on cultivating relationships with politically influential people. Moreover, Chinese science is in peril of corruption coming from several directions: a typically harmful economy mentality has developed within the community, which measures scientific results according to numbers or monetary efficiency, and this, combined with political interference, results in a large waste of money and talent, and is the primary cause of corruption in Chinese science.
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| The Main hall of a Chinese modern science museum, with an arsenal of weapons and satellites |
Modern science in China has developed at a probably greater speed than in most other countries. At the beginning of the 20th century China had virtually no modern science and technology. Knowledge of basic mathematical principles was poor, and education level very low. Through the course of the century science has found ways to grow out of its shell and reach world standard levels. Approximately 60% of technologies, among them atomic energy, computer and information technology, biology, high-energy physics and space technology have nearly reached the world advanced level. One example of this is the launch of the first manned spacecraft on October 15, 2003, called the Shenzhou V. This made China the third country to develop manned spaceflight technology.
Much of the development of recent science and technology in China owes its credit to the basic Law on Progress of Science and Technology, which was promulgated in 1993. It is really a governing piece of legislature for all science, clearly enunciating the objectives and functions of science, a system of rewards and source of funds for scientific inquiry. In 2002 a similar law was promulgated, which sought to make science understandable to ordinary people. It was the Law on Popularization of Science and Technology, which makes a goal to popularize science and technology among all citizens. In the last two decades, the part of the state budget left for science and technology has increased significantly. For example, in 2004, the total appropriation for science and technology was 97.55 billion yuan, about 19.5 percent more than the previous year. Approximately 184.3 billion yuan was spent on scientific research and development, about 1.35 percent of the GDP. This is the highest amount ever given to science in China.
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| Institute of Science in Shanghai |
A major shift of outlook occurred around 2002, when it became part of the national strategy to stimulate science to make original, independent innovations, instead of just following other nations. A national plan was developed according to which China should belong to advanced levels of science in some fields and leading in others. By the year 2010 a preliminary national innovation system should be established, which will further the creation of basic science and technology conditions.
In recent years China has made great contributions to what are considered major areas of scientific research. These are agriculture and medicine, genetics and biodiversity, space science, global change research, social sciences, information industry and astronautics.
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| Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences in Beijing |
In agricultural research significant contributions have been made in crop protection - notably on proteinase inhibitors which kill insects by stopping their digestive process. Research in medicine concentrates on determining the effect of traditional Chinese medicine on the entire body. Also, development of hepatitis vaccines, and the effectiveness of traditional medicines in general rehabilitation. Some of these traditional medicines are used to help the victims of HIV in China, to reduce their pain or prolong their lives. They are even used to aid HIV victims in Africa. In South Asia, medicines that cure malaria are badly needed. One such medicine, the trachosantheum, has been derived from traditional Chinese pharmaceuticals, and proved extremely useful in combating this disease.
Research in the area of genetics has also yielded results. The Chinese Genome Project was launched in 1993, with headquarters in Shanghai. It has carried out genome structural analyses and developed techniques for human genome research informatics. Originally focusing on the rice genome, the project soon shifted to human genome research, following the lead of western scientific projects. A project focusing on liver cancer gene started in 1993 also, with particular attention paid to chromosome 17. One group of researchers at the Institute of Medical Biology at West China University in Chengdu is searching for genes which cause disease in several cell lines. All in all, twelve institutes and nineteen research groups are involved in the human genome project. The main research center for biotechnology and human genome research in China is Shanghai.
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| Shenzhou 6, China's second manned spacecraft, takes off on October 12, 2005 |
Space technology and exploration are one of the most popular areas for modern scientific research. China's first sending of a probe to the moon is scheduled for the year 2010. The name of the project is Chang'e I, and it is organized in a very impressive manner. There are three distinct stages, with various specific goals, of the Chang'e I moon orbiting project, made public recently by Ou'yang Ziyuan, academician of Chinese Academy of Sciences, and chief scientist on moon probing. In the first broad stage of the program, current technologies will be used to develop the necessary equipment which will be installed into the satellite, and which will establish a system for orbiting, carrying, monitoring and ground receiving. The three mentioned short term stages relate to orbiting, docking, and returning of the probe. The first stage, orbiting, requires the development of a moon exploration satellite, which will conduct a relatively extensive surveillance to capture three-dimensional graphs of the moon. Development of the second stage, docking, involves the launching of a docking vehicle for lunar soft landing, conducting of various tests, explorations and astronomical observations. By the third stage, which is the return home, a small sampling capsule is launched to gather the important samples from the moon and return them to the earth.
At the present time, the stage of orbiting takes up most of the work of China's moon probing program. Four scientific goals have been set for the stage of orbiting. Firstly, three-dimensional graphs of the moon's surface will be made. Detailed analyses of the shape, size, density and distribution will be conducted on the crates of the moon. The information thus gathered will help determine the age of the surface and the early history of the terrestrial planets, as well as determine the best sites for landing on the moon surface. The second stage will concentrate on different elements on the surface, like iron and titanium, their type and distribution. A map of the elements will be made, as well as graphs of the moon's rocks, minerals and geology. The possibility for development and exploitation of the discovered minerals will be investigated. The third stage involves measuring the depth of the soil of the moon with microwave radiation. The age of the moon will be calculated in this way more precisely. A solid basis is thereby established for subsequent investigations of the content, distribution and quantity of helium 3. The final goal is to investigate more specifically the space environment between the earth and the moon, that is, the satellite probing of solar energetic particles, plasma in the solar wind and the relation between the solar wind and the moon. China is among the leading countries in the world in many areas of astronautics . It was the fifth country to develop and launch its own satellite, the third that developed the technology for satellite recovery, and is generally among the leading countries in the world in this area. Important achievements have been made in remote-sensing satellites and communications satellites.
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| This is an image of an oncoming hurricane in Taipei. Typhoons and hurricanes are becoming more destructive due to global warming, and this is one of the most fervently debated issues among China's scientists today. |
The China global change program is connected to four different International programs on global change: the World Climate Research Program, the International Geosphere and Biosphere Program, the Human Dimensions Program for Global Change and the DIVERSITAS (an internationally renowned program on biodiversity). New fields for scientific exploration which are becoming very popular are biotechnology and computers. This is an area where Chinese science can prosper in the coming years. Chinese students are educated in the West in growing numbers, and this will help establish the scientific cooperation between U.S. and China. Certainly the most solid foundation for this relation is the US-PRC Science and Technology Agreement, which gives the framework for cooperation in different fields, such as renewable energy, marine conservation and health. China has also well-developed cooperation in science and technology with Japan and the European Union.
Research in social sciences is also quite well-developed in the People's Republic of China. There are five main systems for social science research: the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, schools of higher learning, local academies of social sciences, research institutes affiliated with government agencies and research institutes or units affiliated with the army. A total of about 100,000 researchers are employed in the social science field in these different systems. The pillar of social science research in China is the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, which was established in 1977. It is in charge of creative theoretical exploration and policy research, designed to improve the standard of the humanities and social sciences in China. The Academy consists of 31 research institutes and 45 research centers, making it the most authoritative academic organization in this field.
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| A call for awareness of China's position in the global information community, or simply a statement of China's well-established and highly developed information technology |
China's information industry is the third largest in the world, creating the economic basis for China's modern science. In 2004, the added value of China's information industry was 950 billion yuan. Earnings in this field regularly make the greatest contributions to China's overall economy. The statistics in the area of information science are more than impressive. By the end of 2004, China had 74,429 MB export broadband capacity, 670,000 websites, 41.6 million computers with Internet access, 430,000 China-coded domain names, and about 94 million Internet users, making it the second largest in the world. It has developed the most current Internet services, such as online banking, network education, E-commerce, Internet advertising, Internet Protocol (IP) telephone, SMS text-messaging, information services and computer games. Telecommunications have also been developed to a high standard, with Beijing and other major cities being the centers of the national postal network. By the end of 2004, China had 647.26 million telephone subscribers, 312.44 million fixed lines and 334.82 million mobile phone subscribers, making it the second-largest telephone network in the world. The mobile telecommunication business started in 1987, and it now covers nearly all medium-sized and smaller cities. It also has an international roaming service with more than 150 countries all over the world. Radio and TV networks are still in continuous growth, with the number of radio and TV users over 200 million in 2005. Now almost all the villages in China have radio and television access.
