History of Germany starts already with the Celtic and Germanic tribes which lived in this area since the Iron Age. First inhabitants were the Celts who formed their regions in the territory of today's Germany. Germanic tribes inhabited the area around 800 BC, living mostly in the Central Uplands and North German Plain, bordering the Celtic areas but never mixing with their population. Traces of different cultures can still be seen in the Harz Mountains, in Thale. Germanic tribes started to move in the 1st century BC, from northern Germany and southern Scandinavia to the south, west and east, in the areas already inhabited by Slavic, Baltic and Iranian tribes, as well as the Celtic tribe of Gauls. The history of Germanic tribes isn't recorded, except for their interactions with the Romans. Romans started to invade area of Germania in 100 BC under emperor Augustus. The invasion was led by Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus whose attempt was to occupy the area between the Rhine and the Urals. This was the first time that Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman military tactics, but at the same time kept their tribal identity. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ended with the victory of Germans led by Cheruscan commander Arminius, whose troops defeated three Roman legions in 9 BC.It's still not so clear where is the exact site of this battle, but many claim it took place at the Mount Grotenburg close to Detmold in the state of North-Rhine Westphalia. The battle could also be placed in the area of Kalkriese in the state of Lower Saxony, close to Osnabrück where archaeologists found battle remains such as the breast shields, face helmets and bones. Check out the museum and park in Kalkriese where the remains are exhibited.

Romans never managed to occupy the areas outside the Rhine and Danube natural borders. Germanic tribes settled the areas along the Rhine and the Danube, the Limes Germanicus, by the year 100 - the period of Tacitus' Germania. The Romans started to build the Limes in the year 1 - it was a long wall stretching from Koblenz on the Rhine to Regensburg on the Danube, 568 kilometers in lenght. Except for the wall, 60 forts and 900 watchtowers were built to secure the area from invading German tribes. Today the German Limes Road (Deutsche Limes-Strasse), the bicycle route 800 kilometers long leads you from Bad Honningen in the north (close to Koblenz) to Regensburg in the south, following the fortification line. Another cycling route will take you from an archaeological park in Xanten to Detmold (possible site of the Battle of Teutoburg Forest), showing you the remains of Roman buildings and monuments. By the 3rd century area of modern Germany was largely occupied by West Germanic tribes - Franks, Saxons, Thuringii, Alamanni, Frisians, Chatti and Sicambri. Germanic tribes broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier around the year 260 and occupied the Roman areas. Remains of Roman presence in the territory of today's Germany can still be seen in the area of Trier (Augusta Treverorum) where thermal baths and amphitheater still stand very well preserved. Other traces of Roman presence can be seen in Xanten (where famous archaeological park was built), Bonn, Aachen, Cologne, Koblenz, Regensburg, Mainz (with Roman shipwrecks from the 4th century), Augsburg and Bingen (where Roman surgical instruments were found). Romans brought the tradition of wine production to Germany and Moselle and Rhine vineyards are also a trace of Roman presence in Germany, still very much visible in the landscape.

The Frankish Empire

After the Merovingian kings, belonging to the Germanic tribe of Franks, occupied the area of northern Gaul in 486, they continued to other areas of Germany and conquered other Germanic kingdoms and tribes in the fifth and sixth century. Germanic tribes fell under the control of Frankish colonists, autonomous dukes who allowed them to preserve their own laws but forced them to change their religion. Merovingian king Clovis united the population into Frankish Reich which included today's France and Germany, half of Italian peninsula and the Low countries, while missionaries like St Boniface (the father of German christianity) came to Germany to convert the tribal people to Christianity. After the fall of Western Roman empire, the Frankish empire became the most important political power in Europe. Swabia became a part of the Frankish Empire in 496 after the Battle of Tolbiac. King Chlothar I ruled the area of today's Germany and organized expeditions to Saxony. The southeastern parts of modern Germany were still occupied by the Ostrogoths. The Kingdom of Thuringia was destroyed in 531 by Franks and Saxons, the latter settling in the area around the Unstrut river. In the division of the Frankish empire their German territories were included in the territory of Austrasia. In 718 Charles Martel ended the war against Saxony. The decision was based on its help for the Neustrians. The Franconian Carloman again started the war against in 743, because the Saxons collaborated with Bavarian Duke Odilo. In 751 Pippin III, till then mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, proclaimed himself a king and was supported and anointed by the Church. The Frankish rulers were now the protectors of the Pope and Charlemagne started his military actions against the Saxons and the Avars. Both Saxons and Avars were defeated after the long period of struggle and forced to convert to Christianity.Their lands were included in the territory of the Carolingian Empire.

Holy Roman Empire

King Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire in the period from 772 to 814 to the area of northern Italy and the territories settled by west Germanic tribes such as the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne was crowned as emperor in Rome - with this his authority in Western Europe was confirmed. He divided the Frankish empire into counties, while the borders of the empire were watched by border Marches. Imperial bases (Kaiserpfalzen) like Aachen developed into economic and cultural centers. Because of the disagreements between Charlemagne's grandchildren the Carolingian empire was divided in the period between 843 and 880 with the treaties signed in Verdun, Meerssen and Ribemont. East Frankish kingdom (East Francia) became the German empire.
The Germanic tribes of Bavarians, Franks, Swabians and Saxons were united under Duke Henry of Saxony from 919 to 936. After Duke Henry took the title of king, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans was used for a Frankish kingdom for the first time. Otto I the Great was crowned in Aachen in 936. He was supported by Church after appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (Reichsfürsten) and establishing the national church. His military forces defeated the Magyars of Hungary at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 near Augsburg. They also defeated the Slavs attacking the area between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome in 962, showing the still strong Frankish influence over the Pope. The Kingdom of Burgundy was included into the Holy Roman Empire under Conrad II in 1033. Conrad II was the first emperor of the Salian dynasty. The Holy Roman Empire ruled by Henry III supported the Cluniac reform of the Church - the prohibition of simony, the Peace of God and the celibacy of priests. Frankish authority over the Pope was stronger than ever. An imperial stronghold (Pfalz) was now at Goslar to mark the expansion of the Empire continued to the East. The Investiture Dispute between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII ordered the emperor to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after his excommunication. In 1122 Henry V and the Pope decided about the temporary truce with the Concordat of Worms. Investiture dispute has weakened the Ottonian National Church Reichskirche and assured more power to the Empire's secular princes. During the age of the crusades between 1096 and 1291 the orders of the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order were established.

From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial towns, bishops' palaces, castles and monasteries. These new towns soon gained municipal rights and liberties. Several cities became Imperial Free Cities and did not depend on princes or bishops anymore, but directly to the Emperor. The towns were mostly ruled by patricians. The craftsmen formed guilds, also very influential organizations. Trade with the East and North was very intense at that time and all major trading towns joined the Hanseatic League whose headquarters was in the town of Lübeck. Germans also begun to settle the Slav-inhabited territories east of the Elbe - Silesia, Bohemia, Pomerania and Livonia. Austria became a separate duchy during the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa in 1156. Barbarossa tried to reestablish his control over Italy and in 1177 a final truce was achieved between the emperor and the Pope in Venice. In 1180 Bavaria came under Otto of Wittelsbach, who founded the Wittelsbach dynasty, the rulers of Bavaria until 1918. Saxony was divided at that time. From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire led by Barbarossa was at its top in the Reichsfest (imperial celebrations) held at Mainz. Court life and chivalry flourished and had a great impact on the development of German culture and literature. Frederick II founded a new, professionally administered state in Sicily between 1212 and 1250. He continued the conquest of Italy and deepened the conflict with the Papacy. The Empire granted sovereign powers to church and secular princes, causing the rise of independent territorial states. Frederick II was excommunicated from Church three times which has weakened the Empire significantly. The Hohenstaufen dynasty fell after his death and during the interregnum period the Empire had no Emperor. In 1226 the Teutonic Knights started their occupation of Prussia when the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia invited them to Chełmno Land. Baltic Prussians were soon defeated and converted to Christianity by the Knights. Establishment of numerous German towns along the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea followed soon afterwards.

From 1300 on the Empire started to lose its territory. After unsuccessful negotiations of Emperor Louis IV with the papacy in 1338, the declaration was signed at Rhense allowing the confirmation of election and the royal title by all or the majority of the electors without pope's approval. Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were overtaken by the plague. Jews were at that time persecuted because of religious and economic reasons and many of them exiled to Poland. The Golden Bull of 1356 assured that in future the emperor will be chosen by four secular electors (the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the King of Bohemia, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the Duke of Saxony) and three church electors (the Archbishops of Trier, Mainz and Cologne). After the 14th-century disasters, new European society experienced some economic, religious and political changes. A money economy has caused social discontent among knights and peasants, since the proto-capitalistic system developed from the feudalism. The Fugger family strenghtened through their commercial and financial activities to become financiers to both spiritual and secular rulers. The knightly classes' monopoly on military skills was endangered when the mercenary armies and foot soldiers appeared. In 1438 the Habsburgs, rulers of the southeastern parts of the Empire (today's Austria and Slovenia with an addition of Bohemia and Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), achieved the position of the Holy Roman Emperor, which they held 1806 (except for the period between 1742 and 1745). This situation has weakened the connections between the territorial rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and also prevented parts of the country from uniting and forming a nation like it has been the case with France and England. During the reign of Maximilian I from 1493 to 1519 several reforms were tried out: imperial taxes, establishment of an Imperial Supreme Court (Reichskammergericht) and increased power of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). The reforms were quite unsuccessful because of the territorial fragmentation of the Empire.