History of Spain

Situated at a crossroads of many important migration, and then later trade routes; open to the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean Sea to the south and east; in Europe, yet almost bridging into Africa, that cradle of civilization, Spain's early history is marked by the comings and goings of many of the world's first civilizations and peoples. In fact, the oldest human bone fragments, roughly 750,000 years old and found near Burgos, are proof of human habitation of the peninsula since time immemorial. The Western bastion of the Roman Empire, Hispania - as it was named by the Roman conquerors - not only flourished during this period, taking on such important factors as the language and the basis of its legal system from Rome, but also contributing to the Empire both in terms of its produce and manpower,  as well as giving birth to a number of emperors (including Hadrian!) and such important figures as Seneca.

Significant also and rather specific to Spain in terms of its development as a European nation is its Moorish presence, which marked it for over 8 centuries. During this period, the Dark Ages for most of Europe, Spain flourished as a center of culture and scholarship. This Arabic influence is felt to this day in Spanish architecture, most particularly of Andalusia, but also in the language, which incorporated many Arabic words that the other Romance languages do not have, as well as its gastronomy. Its strategic location as a maritime nation is also key to its more recent history, when Spain managed to play a focal role in shaping the history of much of the world. Who has not heard of Christopher Columbus? Even if many of us do not know he set sail during the reign of Los Reyes Católicos (the Catholic Monarchs, Isabel and Fernando), very few ignore his incredible contribution to the spread of Western culture. More recently, Spain was characterized by very conflicting social forces and a fascist dictatorship under General Franco. These divergent social streams are still felt today: a fervently Roman Catholic country, Spain was among the first European nations to legalize same-sex marriages and adoption by same-sex couples in 2005.

Early history of Spain

First settlers

Proof of earliest human settlement is spread throughout the Iberian Peninsula, in caves which to this day attest to their early dwellers. The oldest human bone fragment in Europe was in fact found in Spain, and it is thought to be 780,000 year old. From the Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon and Paleolithic, traces of all can be found scattered throughout the Kingdom of Spain. A skull found in 1848, Gibraltar woman, is one of the most well preserved vestiges of the Neanderthal era. The caves of Altamira in Cantabria have some of the finest examples of Paleolithic depictions of various animals hunted by this Magdalenian culture, whose reign lasted from around 20,000 BC until the end of the last Ice Age in 8,000 BC. The drawings themselves are estimated to date from 12,000 BC. Another significant site, the Cueva de Nerja, is located in Andalucia. Along with paintings depicting hunting and dancing found in eastern Spain, these are proof of the Cro-Magnons, the first modern humans. They hunted bison and mammoth and probably arrived in Europe from North Africa. The Neolithic (New Stone Age) also arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Africa - Egypt and Mesopotamia - around 6,000 BC. This saw the dawn of innovations such as the plough, as well as the rise of agriculture and farming, pottery, textiles and village settlement. First signs of metalworking, from between 3,000 and 2,000 BC were found in Millares, where local copper deposits were exploited. Megalithic tombs found in Andalusia are from the same period. The Spanish Bronze Age began in the province of Almeria around 1,900 BC, when the local populations started alloying copper with tin.

Earliest colonizers

Settlers from the Mediterranean basin

By around 1,000 BC, western Andalucia saw the rise of a flourishing culture, influenced by Phoenicians, and later Greek traders, dealing in oils, textiles and jewelry in return for the local metals. The Phoenicians, who arrived from the present day Lebanon, set up colonies in Malaga, Cadiz and Almunecar in order to facilitate the ever-growing trade, whereas Greek settlers tended to inhabit regions located further up the northern Mediterranean coast, in Catalonia. It is during this period and due to the above mentioned cultures that some of Spain's most recognizable and world-renown produce and images made their way to the Peninsula: the olive tree, the grape wine and the ubiquitous donkey!

The Celts and the Carthaginians

The dominant culture for roughly a millennium before the arrival of Romans and collectively referred to as Iberians, were soon faced with newcomers, the Celts, arriving originally from Central Europe. These and other tribes crossed the Pyrenees and settled in the north and the central highlands, mixing there with the local populations. Parallel to the Phoenicians introduction of iron in the south, the Celts brought iron to the north of the Peninsula. Arriving from present-day Tunisia, Carthaginians displaced the previous Greek and Phoenician cultures around 6 centuries BC. They in turn fought for dominance with the next rising star - the Romans. After a series of military ebbs and flows, featuring Hannibal and his elephants among others, the Roman Empire was free to expand its hold on Spain by 202 BC, which was when Hannibal was finally forced to make his way back to North Africa.

Roman Times in Spanish history

Though it took Rome more than 200 years to fully establish its dominance on the Iberian Peninsula, its 6 centuries of rule signal a long period of wealth and stability for the region - commonly referred to as Pax Romana. By 50 AD, most of the Iberic tribes living in the region had adopted the Roman mores and norms; however, the Basques in the north were never fully romanized. At this time, Hispania, as the new colonizers called it, became highly organized and urbanized. The Romans contributed much to the Peninsula. They improved existing cities and built new ones: Valencia, León and Merida, to name but a few. A road system and aqueducts were built, some still visible to this day. Trade and economy overall flourished and there was a proliferation of the arts with the erection of theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths. The foundation of the Spanish legal system dates to the Roman times, and clearly the Spanish language developed from Latin.

Christianity made its way to the Peninsula during this period; at the same time, this was a time when many Jews first settled the area, spreading throughout the Mediterranean regions of the Roman Empire. This colony also paid its dues to the Empire: in metals gold and silver, grains, wine and soldiers. Three Roman emperors also hail from the Iberian Peninsula: Hadrian, Trajan and Theodosius. The famous philosopher Seneca also called Hispania home. Vestiges of the Roman empire can still be witnessed in many parts of modern Spain, but some of the more notable ones are the aqueduct in Segovia, and the ruins in Merida and Itálica. The period of Pax Romana came to an end with the arrival of Germanic tribes at the end of the 3rd century.With the decline of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes slowly came from the north, crossing the Pyrenees and settling the prosperous province of  Hispania. In 410, the Visigoths sacked the eternal city itself, arriving in Hispania in 415. Soon thereafter, this romanized tribe settled the most of the Peninsula and gained control over it. One of the oldest churches still standing in Spain, the Basilica de San Juan, dates back to the Visigothic period, and is located near Palencia.

Moorish period

The Conquest

In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Straits of Gibraltar with an army of 10,000 soldiers, thus marking the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Spain. Within a few years, the Berber Muslims had conquered all but a small part of the Iberian Peninsula, in the Asturian mountains. The name of this newly established territory was Al-Andalus. Though the borders of the Muslim territory constantly fluctuated for the 800 years before the Reconquest, it can be clearly said that for 4 centuries the Moors controlled the Peninsula, and had a strong grip over it for another 4 centuries. The centers of power and culture slowly shifted with the rise of the different Caliphates:

• Córdoba: 756-1031
• Seville: 1040-1248
• Granada: 1248-1492
  

During this time, which for most of Europe marked the Dark Ages, Al-Andalus was the most highly cultured and sophisticated society of medieval Europe. Córdoba was in fact the most spectacular city of Occidental Europe at the time and many of its present day attractions attest to its former glory. Palaces with rich gardens, universities, mosques, public baths and markets were built, new fruits were brought to the Peninsula, irrigation was improved. Libraries were established and scholarship flourished: astronomy, mathematics, botany and medicine in particular. Moreover, the Moorish rule was also marked by its religious tolerance, the likes of which was not commonly fostered at the time. In fact, though Muslims were the dominant class, as "people of the book", both Christians and Jews were allowed freedom of religious worship. Scholars from all three faiths freely exchanged ideas. Though the Muslim armies tried to enter Europe, the spread of Islam was halted at the Pyrenees, which for centuries made a very natural and physical border between Spain and the rest of Europe. The centuries of Muslim presence left a veritable vestige on Spain, clearly setting it apart from the rest of Europe. It is seen through its architecture, particularly in the south, it is tasted in the subtle spice combinations of its cuisine, heard in the sounds of the Spanish guitar, smelled in the blossoming orange groves of Valencia, and felt in the cool touch of the ceramic tiles adorning Spanish courtyards.

The Reconquest

It could be said that the Spanish Reconquista is one of the longest freedom fights in the history of the world: it started roughly in 722 in Asturias, and lasted until the fall of Granada in 1492. During this time, the Muslims were slowly pushed south as the Christian kingdoms united, fell apart, fought each other and reunited under new guises. Toledo fell in 1085, Zaragoza in 1118, and 1212 saw the unifications of Aragon, Castile and Navarra, which brought the beginning of the end of Al-Andalus. A lot of this struggle was done under the auspices of St James: with the supposed discovery of the saint's tomb in Galicia in 813, Santiago de Compostela became one of the most popular pilgrimage sites in all of Europe. Generals had visions of St James before their battles, he was considered the protector of the Christian soldiers and won the epithet Matamoros - the Moor Slayer.

The Golden Age

The unification of the Christian kingdoms of Aragon, Castille, Navarra and León in their fight against the Muslim conquerors laid the foundations of the modern Kingdom of Spain, which was soon to become one of the leading world powers, with dominion over most of South and Central America leading to both a booming trade and economy as well as flourishing arts and culture.

The Colonization of Americas

Though with the improved maritime skills and technology it was only a question of time when the rising powers of Europe would eventually land in America, it is a fact that Christopher Columbus is attributed with the modern "discovery" of America - certainly a most decisive event for the history of Spain and its subsequent rise to power. Columbus undertook the first and most important of his voyages in April 1492, during the reign of Isabella and Fernando, in an attempt to find a new trade route to Asia. He landed a few months later in the Bahamas, found Cuba and Hispaniola, and returned to Spain a hero. Through his accounts and the discovered routes, he lead the way to Spanish colonization of the Americas: during his lifetime most of the Caribbean islands and parts of Central America were conquered by other adventurers on behalf of Spain. Setting Spain on the path to glory and riches, Columbus himself died destitute after a series of incarcerations and bouts of madness. He died certain that he had in fact discovered this new route to the Orient. This vibrant period of Spanish history is defined by other endeavors of equal glory. Moved by a series of conflicting yet complimentary motivators - gold lust, piety, bravery, patriotism, brutality and quest for personal glory - other conquistadores set for the Americas.

At the beginning of the 16th century, Hernán Cortés subjugated the fearsome Aztec empire, situated in the present day Mexico, and soon thereafter, Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire, stretching throughout South America. By the end of the century, under Felipe II, Spain reached the peak of its power: it controlled the Caribbean, Florida, most of present day Mexico and Central America and a large part of South America. The gold and silver arriving from the colonies were used both to enrich the nation, and strengthen the hold of the Catholic Church.

The Golden Century

Spanish rise to a world power was accompanied by equally glorious art works, literary in particular. This illustrious period is referred to as the Sieclo de Oro, the Golden Century. Contemporaneous to W. Shakespeare, Lope de Vega (1562-1635) was the most prolific playwright of all time. Light and entertaining, 300 of his works have survived to this day. Tirso de Molina (1581-1648) is another playwright from the time, slightly less popular than de Vega, he, however, started a whole literary theme with the introduction of the personage of Don Juan in his El Burlador de Sevilla. Finally, no mention of Spanish Golden Age or literature overall is complete without the mention of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (1547-1616), the father of the modern novel and the creator of one of the most popular fictional characters of all time, Don Quixote, that erring knight in search of his sweet Dulcinea.

The Spanish Inquisition 

Established in 1478 by the Catholic monarchs in order to deal with heterodoxy, the Spanish Inquisition set to identify all those who did not  practice Christianity in the way that the Catholic Church prescribed. Though its initial focus was on the new converts from Judaism, soon it began to target the moriscos as well (converted Muslims). Though Isabel and Fernando granted Muslims freedom of worship and culture as one of their terms of their surrender, this was not respected for long. Isabel's confessor, Cardinal Cisneros, carried out massive forced baptisms, systematically set out to destroy the culture by burning Islamic books and banning the Arabic language. In addition, Muslim lands were seized, leading to great unrest. Like the Jews in 1492, the Muslims were also finally expelled from Spain at the beginning of the 17th century. The Spanish Inquisition is altogether responsible for the deaths of some 12,000 people over a period of 300 years. It was not formally abolished until 1834.

Recent past

Forays with France

The effects of the French Revolution of 1789 were also felt in Spain. When Carlos IV's cousin Louis XVI was overthrown and then executed in France in 1793, Spain went to war against France. It was defeated, but shortly thereafter, made peace with France, letting Napoleon's troops march over Spanish territory on their way to conquering Portugal. By the early 19th century, this effectively became a French occupation of Spain. Causing great tension within the nation, and with a grave economic crisis, Carlos finally abdicated the throne and Napoleon's brother Joseph rose to power (Jose I). In 1808, the citizens of Madrid began to revolt against the French, and across the whole country people took up arms - marking the beginning of the Peninsular War. The French, after Napoleon's disastrous Russian campaign and with their forces stretched to their limits, finally lost the war in 1813, allowing Spain to be ruled once again by a Spanish king, Ferdinand VII. During the Peninsular War, a liberal constitution was drawn up by the Spanish parliament in Cadiz, incorporating many of the elements introduced by the French and American revolutionaries. Though short lived - Ferdinand VII revoked it - this constitution of 1812 is at the same time Spain's first constitution. Taking advantage of the backlash presented by Ferdinand VII upon his rise to the throne, for he also persecuted liberal opponents and once again reinstated the Inquisition, American colonies used to moment to fight for their own freedom: by the 1820's, only a handful of colonies remained under Spain's rule.

20th century

With increasing economic hardship giving fuel to Marxist revolutionaries, growing emigration to Latin America, rising anti-clericalism (hand in hand with rising resentment towards the monarchy), the stage was set for a very turbulent period in Spanish history. In an effort to regain some of its former glory, Spain tried to extend its hold to Africa. In 1921, after a debacle in Morocco, where 10,000 Spanish soldiers were killed, the monarchy was overthrown and General Primo de Rivera established the Second Republic. During this period, autonomy was granted to the Basque Country, Catalonia and Galicia, and women were given the right to vote. The brutally fought Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) followed. The country was divided into two factions: the Nationalist rebels, under General Franco and the Republicans, supported by the whole ecclesiastic infrastructure. During the war, the country was decimated: an estimated number of 350,000 people were killed, though some estimates run as high as 500,000. Though neutral in the World Wars, Spain was in fact one of the first battlefields of WW II, with Mexico and Russia siding with Republicans, and nations as varied as Canada getting involved through numerous volunteers which joined the fight. Supported by the fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Francisco Franco emerged victorious in 1939. Under Franco's dictatorship, Spain remained generally isolated from the rest of Europe, both politically and economically. It only became a member of the United Nations in 1955, mainly due to its strategic importance for the USA. After Franco's death in 1975, Prince Juan Carlos assumed power as the head of State. The new constitution was passed in 1978, signaling the arrival of democracy. In 1986, Spain finally joined the European Union.